The Septuagint: Influential Greek Translation of the Hebrew Bible
The Septuagint, known as LXX, is an essential Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament from the 3rd century BC, originating in Alexandria, Egypt. It not only includes the Hebrew canon but also integrates apocryphal writings recognized in many Christian traditions. This collection influenced the dissemination of Jewish writings in the Hellenistic world and shaped early Christianity, as the Apostles and New Testament authors often quoted from it. Despite being later replaced by the Vulgate in the Western Church, the Septuagint remains central in Orthodox Christianity. Its textual and theological examination provides deep insights into biblical tradition.
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The Septuagint LXX
The Septuagint, also known as the Greek translation of the Old Testament or as the Translation of the Seventy, is the oldest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew. The full Greek title is derived from the story recorded in the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates. It is reported there that “the laws of the Jews” were translated into Greek at the request of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-247 BC) by seventy-two (or seventy) Hebrew translators – six from each of the twelve tribes of Israel.
Bible scholars agree that the first five books of the Hebrew Bible were likely translated in the early or middle part of the 3rd century BC by Jews in the Ptolemaic Kingdom from Biblical Hebrew into Koine Greek. The remaining books were likely translated in the 2nd century BC. The Septuagint thus fulfilled a need in the Jewish community, as only a few people could speak or read the Hebrew language. The term “Septuaginta” is derived from the Latin phrase “Vetus Testamentum ex versione Septuaginta Interpretum,” which means “The Old Testament from the translation of the seventy translators.” It was not until the time of Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD) that it was referred to as the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures. The Roman numeral LXX (seventy) is often used as an abbreviation. The Septuagint consists of various Greek translations of the Tanakh, along with other Jewish texts that are often referred to today as the Apocrypha. There are differences between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text, which forms the basis of the present-day Jewish Tanakh, as well as the Latin Vulgate text used by the Roman Catholic Church. The Septuagint has also influenced other Christian translations of the Old Testament and serves as the basis for versions in Slavic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian, and Coptic languages.
Etymology
The etymology of the term “Septuagint” is interesting. The name comes from the Latin phrase “Vetus Testamentum ex versione Septuaginta Interpretum,” which means “The Old Testament from the translation of the Seventy Translators.” The title “Septuagint” traces back to the story described in the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates. There, it is recounted that King Ptolemy II Philadelphus in the third century BC sent seventy-two Hebrew translators to Alexandria to translate the laws of the Jews into Greek. The name “Septuagint” refers to the number 70, as some versions claim that 70 translators were involved. It is important to note that the exact number of translators involved is not historically documented. Nevertheless, the term “Septuagint” has become established over time and is used today to refer to the Greek translation of the Old Testament.
Jewish Legend
According to Jewish legend, the Septuagint was translated at the command of the Egyptian Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus by 72 Jewish scholars. These scholars came from the twelve tribes of Israel and were sent from Jerusalem to Alexandria. According to the legend, they were accommodated in 72 separate rooms without knowing why they were summoned. The Pharaoh entered each room and asked the scholars to translate the Torah, the sacred law of the Jews, into the Greek language. Amazingly, all 72 scholars translated the Hebrew original in exactly the same way. This extraordinary uniformity of translation was considered a divine miracle.
The story of the translation of the Septuagint is recorded in various sources, including the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates and writings by Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. It was later also mentioned by Augustine of Hippo. However, the Jewish tradition did not consider the Septuagint to be an authentic and suitable translation of the Hebrew Bible. It viewed the translation as a distortion of the sacred text and unsuitable for use in the synagogue.
Nevertheless, the story of the Septuagint remains a fascinating legend that emphasizes the significance and influence of this Greek translation of the Old Testament.
History
The significance of the Septuagint for understanding the Old Testament is immense. The translation into Greek began in the 3rd century BC and spanned several centuries. However, it is unclear in what exact order and at which locations the translations took place.
It is believed that the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah, were translated into Greek first. This translation is reflected in the quality of Greek, which is similar to early Koine Greek. Over time, other books were also translated gradually. However, it is unclear at what point each book was translated and whether there may have been multiple versions of the translations.
The quality of the translations varies from book to book. Some are literal translations, while others are more freely interpreted. There are also different styles and theological emphases in the various translations.
The Septuagint had a significant influence on the Jewish community at that time. At a time when Hebrew was spoken or read by only a few, Greek was the dominant language in the Eastern Mediterranean region. For this reason, the Septuagint met a need in the Jewish community, as it allowed people to read and understand the sacred texts in their own language.
The Septuagint also gained importance in the early Christian communities as Christianity spread. The apostles and their followers often quoted from the Septuagint, indicating that they considered this Greek translation to be reliable.
Over time, there were various revisions and editions of the Septuagint. Different Greek versions emerged, which were used by various Jewish and later Christian communities.
The Septuagint had a significant influence on later translations of the Old Testament into other languages such as Latin, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, and Coptic.
Overall, the history of the Septuagint is an intriguing chapter in the origin and dissemination of the Old Testament and still holds significant importance in Jewish and Christian tradition.
Language
The Septuagint, a translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek, was written in the Greek language. In some sections, there are Semitic influences, meaning that turns of phrase and expressions from Semitic languages like Hebrew and Aramaic are used. Other books like Daniel and Proverbs, on the other hand, show a stronger Greek influence.
The Septuagint also provides us with a better understanding of the pronunciation of pre-Masoretic Hebrew. In the translation, many proper names are written with Greek vowels, while contemporary Hebrew texts did not have vowel points. However, it is unlikely that all the sounds of biblical Hebrew had exact Greek equivalents.
The Greek translation of the Bible, the Septuagint, also has some differences from the Latin Vulgate and the Masoretic Text, which serves as the basis for the Hebrew Tanakh. These differences can have various causes, such as different Hebrew sources or idiomatic translation issues. Additionally, they could be due to revisions and copying errors during transmission.
As a whole, the Greek language of the Septuagint is a significant element of its composition and influences our current interpretation of the Old Testament.
Differences between Septuagint and Masoretic Text
There are certain differences in composition between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text. The Masoretic Text forms the basis for the present-day Hebrew Tanakh, while the Septuagint is a Greek translation of the Old Testament. These differences concern both the content and the arrangement of the books.
The Masoretic Text is divided into three parts: the Torah (Law), the Nevi’im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). In contrast, the Septuagint is divided into four parts: Law, History, Poetry, and Prophets. The apocryphal books were inserted accordingly into the Septuagint.
The Septuagint also includes additional books that are not present in the Masoretic Text. These books are referred to as the second canon or apocryphal books. These include, for example, Tobit, Judith, the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, and the Books of Maccabees. These books were written between the 3rd century BC and the 1st century AD.
Some of the additional books have longer versions than the Masoretic Text, such as the Book of Daniel. Others, on the other hand, are shorter, such as the Book of Jeremiah.
It is important to note that the inclusion of these additional books in the Septuagint is assessed differently by various Christian traditions. The Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church include most of these books in their Bible, while Protestant churches generally do not.
The differences between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text are a fascinating phenomenon, revealing the diversity of transmission and interpretation of the Old Testament. They also influence current practices and interpretations in both Jewish and Christian traditions.
Final form
The final form of the Septuagint exhibits some distinct features. All books present in the Western Old Testament are also found in the Septuagint, though not always in the same order. The Septuagint has its own arrangement of books, which is reflected in the earliest Christian Bibles of the 4th century.
Some books, considered as separate books in the Masoretic Text, are combined in the Septuagint. For example, the books of Samuel and the books of Kings are combined into one book titled “The Kings.” The books of Chronicles, considered as two separate books in the Masoretic Text, are combined in the Septuagint as “The Things Left Behind.” The twelve minor prophets are presented in the Septuagint as one book titled “The Twelve.”
Some ancient texts are present in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Tanakh. These additional books include, for example, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, and the Letter of Jeremiah. There are also additions to the books of Esther and Daniel. Some of these books are considered deuterocanonical or apocryphal by certain communities.
It is noteworthy to observe that there are discrepancies between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text in some instances. Some books in the Septuagint are longer than in the Masoretic Text, such as the Book of Daniel, while the Book of Jeremiah is shorter in the Septuagint.
The Septuagint strongly influences the understanding of the Old Testament within various Christian traditions and is often used as a basis for translations into other languages. It is important to note that its definitive form is not uniform, and different manuscripts may contain varying contents.
The variations between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text reflect the development of the Old Testament over time and the diversity of transmission traditions. They also influence the canonical recognition of the books in different religious traditions.
The translation of Theodotion
The translation of Theodotion plays an important role in the history of the Septuagint. In the Book of Daniel, there are two different versions in the Septuagint: the original version dating back to around 100 BC and the later version by Theodotion from the 2nd century AD. These two Greek texts differ in some sections.
The Theodotion version of the Book of Daniel resembles the Masoretic Text in many aspects more than the original Septuagint version. As a result, the Theodotion version became the predominant version of Daniel in most manuscripts of the Septuagint. In contrast, the original Septuagint version was only discovered in two manuscripts of the Septuagint.
The 12 chapters of the Book of Daniel are preserved in the Masoretic Text version and in two longer Greek versions: the original Septuagint version from the 2nd century BC and the later Theodotion version from the 2nd century AD. Both Greek texts include three additions to the Book of Daniel: the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews, the story of Susanna, and the story of Bel and the Dragon. The Theodotion version closely resembles the Masoretic Text and became so popular that it replaced the original Septuagint version in almost all manuscripts of the Septuagint. The Greek additions were apparently never part of the Hebrew text. Various ancient Greek texts of the Book of Daniel have been discovered, and the original form of the book is being reconstructed.
The reasons for the emergence of the Theodotion version are not definitively clear. It is speculated that Theodotion created a new Greek translation to more accurately represent the Masoretic Text and to overcome difficulties in the original Septuagint version. The Theodotion version was widely accepted by the church and found its way into most Septuagint manuscripts.
It is important to mention that the Theodotion version is not only found in the Book of Daniel but also in other parts of the Old Testament. In some cases, the Theodotion version was even considered the preferred version over the original Septuagint version.
The comparison between the Theodotion version and the original Septuagint version of Daniel illustrates the complexity and diversity of the transmission of the Old Testament. Furthermore, they highlight the influence of different translations and revisions over time.
The Theodotion version of the Book of Daniel has overall held significant importance in the history of the Septuagint and continues to shape our understanding of this biblical book today.
Christian Use
In the early church, the Septuagint was widely used as Greek was the lingua franca of the Roman Empire and the language of the Greco-Roman church at that time. The relationship between the apostolic use of the Septuagint and the Hebrew texts is complex. While the Septuagint seemed to be an important source for the apostles, it was not the only one. For example, Jerome, who translated the Old Testament into his Vulgate, cited Matthew 2:15 and 2:23, John 19:3, and 1 Corinthians 2:9 as examples found in Hebrew texts but not in the Septuagint. Matthew 2:23 is also not included in the current Masoretic Text; however, according to Jerome, it was found in Isaiah 11:1. The early non-Jewish Christians used the Septuagint out of necessity since it was the only Greek version of the Bible, and most (if not all) of these early non-Jewish Christians could not read Hebrew. The association of the Septuagint with a competing religion, however, may have made it suspicious in the eyes of the younger generation of Jews and Jewish scholars. Instead, Jews used Hebrew or Aramaic Targum manuscripts, which were later compiled by the Masoretes and authoritative Aramaic translations like those of Onkelos and Rabbi Yonathan ben Uziel. Perhaps most significantly, the Septuagint allegedly lost Jewish approval unlike other Greek versions after differences between it and contemporary Hebrew writings were discovered. Even Greek-speaking Jews apparently preferred other Greek Jewish versions (such as the translation of Aquila) that seemed to align better with contemporary Hebrew texts.
Text Analysis
The examination of the Septuagint text involves comparing it with the Masoretic Text and the Vulgate. There are differences between the texts that can be classified into four categories:
There are various Hebrew sources for the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint. These differences exist throughout the Old Testament and can be attributed to various Hebrew source texts.
There are various interpretations based on the same Hebrew text. An example of this is Genesis 4:7, where the Septuagint uses different words than the Masoretic Text but conveys the same meaning.
Differences arise due to idiomatic and translation-related issues. It often happens that Hebrew idioms cannot be directly translated into Greek, leading to changes in the wording.
Changes in transmission in Hebrew or Greek, including revisions or copying errors.
The oldest manuscripts of the Septuagint date back to the 2nd century BC and the 5th century AD. They demonstrate that the texts diverged over time due to Jewish and later Christian revisions and revisions.
The differences between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text are often explained by the use of different Hebrew sources, varying interpretations, translation issues, and changes in transmission. Research has shown that neither version is inherently “right” or “wrong,” but rather they reflect different traditions and transmissions.
Jewish Use
It is unclear how the Jews in Alexandria accepted the authority of the Septuagint. Among the Dead Sea Scrolls, manuscripts of the Septuagint were found, which were used at that time by various Jewish sects. However, several factors led to the majority of Jews in the 2nd century AD. abandoned the Septuagint. The early non-Jewish Christians used the Septuagint out of necessity, as it was the only Greek version of the Bible, and most (if not all) of these early non-Jewish Christians could not read Hebrew. However, the association of the Septuagint with a competing religion may have made it suspicious in the eyes of the newer generation of Jews and Jewish scholars. Instead, Jews used Hebrew or Aramaic Targum manuscripts, which were later compiled by the Masoretes and authoritative Aramaic translations like those of Onkelos and Rabbi Yonathan ben Uziel. Perhaps most significantly for the Septuagint, as opposed to other Greek versions, was that it lost Jewish approval after differences between it and contemporary Hebrew scriptures were discovered. Even Greek-speaking Jews preferred other Jewish versions in Greek (such as the translation of Aquila), which apparently better aligned with contemporary Hebrew texts.
Qumran: Insight into the Septuagint
The Dead Sea Scrolls are an important discovery that has contributed to the research and expansion of our understanding of the Old Testament. Among the discovered scrolls, there are also fragments of the Septuagint. These fragments provide us with insight into the diversity of textual variants and traditions.
Some of the Hebrew fragments found are from books that are also included in the Septuagint, such as Daniel and Tobit. There is also a fragment of Psalm 151, which is found in some editions of the Septuagint. Furthermore, the book of Sirach (also known as Jesus Sirach or Ben Sira) was discovered in the Hebrew language, indicating that it existed before the Septuagint.
By finding these fragments, we have the opportunity to further explore the comparison between the Hebrew texts and the Greek Septuagint more precisely. It also becomes clear that there were various versions and revisions of the texts that emerged over time.
The Dead Sea Scrolls are a precious testimony to the diversity and development of biblical textual traditions. They have enabled us to further explore the precision and reliability of the biblical texts and deepen our understanding of the Old Testament.
The above-mentioned fragments were discovered in Cave 4 of the Qumran area. They are significant evidence for the presence and use of the Septuagint during the time of the Qumran community.
The fragment 4QLXXLev (4Q120) contains excerpts of the book of Leviticus in the Septuagint version. It was found in Cave 4.
4QLXXNum (4Q121): This piece contains sections of the book of Numbers in the Septuagint version. It was also discovered in Cave 4.
4QLXXDeut (4Q123): This excerpt contains sections of the book of Deuteronomy in the Septuagint version. It was found in Cave 4.
Septuagint & Masoretic Text: Nuances & Similarities
The differences between the Septuagint (LXX) and the Masoretic Text (MT) encompass a variety of aspects ranging from text structure to theological interpretations and linguistic peculiarities. A complete detailed analysis of all differences would be extensive, but I will address some key points that illuminate the core differences and their potential reasons.
Canonical Differences
- Additional Books: The LXX includes texts not found in the MT, such as the books of Maccabees, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, as well as additions to Esther and Daniel.
- The reason for this differenceis that the LXX represents a broader collection of Jewish writings from the Hellenistic period that were used in the Jewish diaspora, while the canon of the MT was later established and is more narrowly defined to preserve specific Jewish identity and tradition.
Textual Differences
- Jeremiah: The LXX version of Jeremiah is approximately 1/8 shorter than in the MT. This is attributed to the LXX possibly reflecting an earlier version of the text, while the MT could be based on a later expanded version.
- Exodus 1,5The number of souls who went down to Egypt differs (LXX: 75, MT: 70). The difference arises from a different transmission of the family genealogies, which in the LXX include additional names to strengthen the connection to the Jews living in Egypt.
- Psalm 22/23: Differences in numbering and wording. These variations can be explained by different collections and arrangements of the Psalms in various Jewish communities, with the LXX possibly preserving an older tradition.
Theological Differences
- God’s Names: The systematic replacement of the Tetragrammaton YHWH with “Kyrios” in the LXX could be an adaptation to the Hellenistic environment to emphasize the monotheism of Judaism in a polytheistic culture.
- Messiah Concepts: Isaiah 7:14 (“virgin” in the LXX vs. “young woman” in the MT) illustrates how translation choices can influence theological interpretations. The choice of “virgin” in the LXX may have been motivated by a desire to reinforce messianic prophecies in the light of Hellenistic notions of divine birth.
Linguistic Peculiarities
- Hebraisms: The LXX retains a literal translation of the Hebrew original in many places, resulting in a “Hebrew-sounding” Greek. This indicates the translators’ respect for the original text, even though it led to stylistically unusual Greek.
- Translation Philosophy: The variability from literal to freer translation in the LXX reflects different translation traditions within the Jewish communities. While some translators aimed for the most accurate rendition, others adapted the texts to the understanding and expectations of a Hellenistic-influenced audience.
Cultural and Religious Adaptations
- Adaptations to Hellenism: Changes in the LXX, such as harmonizing with Hellenistic ideas, aimed to make Judaism more accessible to a non-Jewish audience.
- Response to Early Christian Interpretations: Speculations about modifications in the MT as a response to Christian use of Jewish and Christian doctrines to establish. These modifications could be interpreted as an attempt to close interpretive gaps that Christians used to support the messianic role of Jesus. Such an approach would suggest that Jewish scholars consciously adapted texts to refute or discredit Christological interpretations based on the Septuagint. This was intended to emphasize the independence and uniqueness of Jewish theological concepts, especially regarding the expectation of the Messiah, which became central in Christian theology.
This perspective is based on historical observations of how Jewish and Christian communities developed and defined their texts and doctrines over time. In particular, the debates between rabbis and Christian theologians in the early centuries AD may have led to an increased emphasis on certain textual variants in the Masoretic Text that allowed for a clearer distinction from Christianity.
Manuscripts
The oldest manuscripts of the Septuagint contain fragments from the 2nd century BC of Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, and the Twelve Minor Prophets. Complete manuscripts of the Septuagint date from the 4th and 5th centuries AD, such as the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Alexandrinus. These are among the oldest nearly complete manuscripts of the Old Testament in any language. The oldest complete Hebrew texts date approximately 600 years later from the first half of the 10th century AD.
The differences between the various manuscripts of the Septuagint arise from Jewish and later Christian revisions and adaptations. One of the most famous manuscripts is the Codex Sinaiticus from the 4th century, which contains numerous Old Testament texts.
The different versions of the manuscripts can be attributed to various factors, such as revisions or errors during copying. The various variants of the texts can be of great significance in gaining a better understanding of the development and transmission of the Septuagint.
The manuscripts of the Septuagint illustrate the diversity and changes over time, influenced by both Jewish and Christian factors. They are significant sources for the study of this early Greek text of the Old Testament, enabling us to better understand the history and development of the Septuagint.
Septuagint: Key Editions Overview
There are numerous printed editions of the Septuagint that have been published by various scholars and publishers. Here are some well-known examples:
Rahlfs’ Septuaginta, edited by Alfred Rahlfs, was first published in 1935. This critical edition of the Septuagint is a standard reference edition and contains a detailed textual apparatus.
The Göttingen Septuagint is a comprehensive scholarly edition edited by a group of scholars at the University of Göttingen. The first edition was published between 1931 and 2006 and includes detailed commentary and information.
The “Cambridge Septuagint” by Alan England Brooke, Norman McLean, and Henry St. John Thackeray was published in nine volumes from 1906 to 1940. It is a significant edition with extensive commentary.
The “Oxford Edition of the Septuagint” by Alfred Rahlfs and Robert Hanhart was first published in two volumes in 2006. It provides an accurate text of the Septuagint and includes detailed annotations.
The Tübingen Septuagint was edited by Martin Hengel and Anna Maria Schwemer and was published in six volumes between 2008 and 2012. This edition provides the Greek text of the Septuagint and includes detailed commentary.
Swete’s Septuagint: Edited by Henry Barclay Swete, it was first published in three volumes in 1887. It is an important early edition of the Septuagint with a detailed introduction and commentary.
Lagarde’s Septuagint: Diese Ausgabe, veröffentlicht von Paul de Lagarde im Jahr 1868, beruht auf einer neuen kritischen Textanalyse der Septuaginta.
Vaticanus Graecus 1209: Eine Schriftrolle der Septuaginta, welche im Archiv des Vatikans aufbewahrt wird. Sie stammt aus dem vierten Jahrhundert und ist eine bedeutende Ressource für die Textanalyse.
Alexandrinus Graecus 77: Another significant manuscript of the Septuagint from the 5th century, preserved in the British Library.
The Septuagint edition of the Aldine Edition was published in 1518 by the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius and was one of the earliest printed editions of the Septuagint.
Chronological list of events related to the Septuagint
Origin of the Septuagint
The Septuagint, the oldest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was likely produced in the Ptolemaic Kingdom by Jews. This translation plays a key role in the dissemination of Jewish texts in the Greek-speaking world.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus and the translators
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Greek Pharaoh of Egypt, is said to have commissioned 72 Hebrew translators to translate the laws of the Jews, especially the Pentateuch, into Greek. This tradition comes from the so-called “Letter of Aristeas.”
Translation of the remaining books
The remaining books of the Hebrew Bible, including the Prophets and Writings, are presumed to have been translated into Greek. However, the exact timing and the individuals responsible are not clearly documented.
Translation of the prophetic books
During the 1st century BC, the prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible are translated into Greek and added to the collection of the Septuagint.
Use by Greek-speaking Jews and early Christians
The Septuagint is used as a sacred scripture by Greek-speaking Jews and early Christians. It serves as the basis for numerous quotations in the New Testament.
Apostolic usage
The authors of the New Testament quote from the Septuagint in some cases, solidifying its significance in the Christian context as well.
Origen and his revisions
Origen, an early Christian scholar, makes significant revisions to the Septuagint. His work Hexapla is considered a key source for textual criticism of the Old Testament.
Codex Vaticanus
The Codex Vaticanus, one of the oldest nearly complete manuscripts of the Septuagint, is produced. It is kept in the Vatican Library and is a significant source for textual analysis.
Codex Sinaiticus
The Codex Sinaiticus, also known as Sinaiticus, is created in the 4th century AD and is one of the four great uncial codices containing a nearly complete text of the Septuagint and the New Testament. The manuscript was discovered in the 19th century by the German biblical scholar Constantin von Tischendorf at the Monastery of St. Catherine on the Sinai Peninsula. The Codex is of particular significance for biblical textual criticism and holds a high value in the field of scholarship. A large portion of the manuscript is housed in the British Library in London, with smaller parts found in other libraries worldwide.
Jerome - Revisions and Comparisons with the Hebrew
Jerome, another early Christian scholar, consults the Hebrew texts for his Latin Vulgate translation and questions the accuracy of the Septuagint in some instances.
Codex Alexandrinus
The Codex Alexandrinus, another important manuscript of the Septuagint, is created and later housed in the British Library in London.
Septuagint in the Orthodox Church
While the Western Church uses the Vulgate, the Septuagint remains the standard Bible translation for the Orthodox Church in the East and Byzantium.
Polyglot Bibles
The Septuagint is published in polyglot Bibles such as the Complutensian Polyglot Bible (1514–1517) and the Brian Walton Polyglot (1657). These editions include texts in multiple languages and play a role in scholarly Bible study.
Sistine Septuagint
Under the authority of Pope Sixtus V, the Sistine Septuagint is published. This edition is based on the Codex Vaticanus.
More modern editions
Robert Holmes and James Parsons (1798–1827), Constantin von Tischendorf (1850), and Henry Barclay Swete (1887–1894) each publish their editions of the Septuagint. These works shape textual criticism research.
More modern editions
Robert Holmes and James Parsons (1798–1827), Constantin von Tischendorf (1850), and Henry Barclay Swete (1887–1894) each publish their editions of the Septuagint. These works shape textual criticism research.
Scholarly editions
- Rahlfs’ Septuagint (1935)
- Göttingen Septuagint (1931–2006)
- Cambridge Septuagint (1906–1940)
- Oxford Septuagint (2006)
- Tübingen Septuagint (2008–2012)
Current usage
The Septuagint is used by the Orthodox Church as the basis for the translation of the Old Testament. Protestants often do not consider it canonical or only use parts of it. Numerous print editions are available, including modern critical editions.
Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymus translations
The work of Jerome, especially the Vulgate, has a significant influence on Christian theology, particularly on the doctrine of the Trinity. The Vulgate is not just a translation but also an interpretation of the biblical text that plays an important role in the Roman Catholic tradition.
Doctrine of the Trinity
The concept of the Trinity – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead – is a cornerstone of Christian theology, especially in Western churches.
Comma Johanneum (1 John 5:7-8)
The so-called Comma Johanneum in 1 John 5:7-8, which appears as an addition by Jerome in the Vulgate, presents a clear Trinitarian formulation: “For there are three that bear record in heaven: the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these three are one.” This passage is at the center of critical analysis as it is missing from the oldest Greek manuscripts, including the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus from the 4th century. Its absence in these foundational textual witnesses raises questions about its authenticity.
This discrepant textual tradition is not just an academic curiosity but has direct theological implications. The passage serves as explicit evidence for the doctrine of the Trinity, a core element especially in Catholic theology. However, its absence in the earliest manuscripts undermines the basis for a Trinitarian interpretation solely relying on the Holy Scripture. The presence of the Comma Johanneum in later manuscripts and in the Vulgate could be interpreted as an attempt to retrospectively anchor an existing theological view in the biblical text.
The consequence? The Comma Johanneum cannot be regarded as a reliable, original textual component of the Bible. Its function as a supposed evidence for the doctrine of the Trinity is thus subject to critical scrutiny. This underscores the essential importance of textual criticism in accurately assessing the authenticity and the resulting theological conclusions.
Matthew 28:19
The verse is often seen as evidence for the doctrine of the Trinity, especially as it contains the baptismal formula with the three persons of the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). The Greek text and the Vulgate agree on this point.
Critical analysis
Although the verse lists the names of the three persons of the Trinity, it uses the term “name” in the singular, not in the plural. This could be interpreted as an indication of a conceptual unity of the three persons, rather than evidence for their Trinity.
Variation in baptismal practices in the Acts of the Apostles
The baptismal accounts in the Acts of the Apostles show that baptism is often performed only “in the name of Jesus.” This could suggest that the baptismal practice in the early Church was less strictly Trinitarian or that there were different practices in different communities. The Vulgate does not provide a definitive resolution for these variations.
Influence of Jerome on the doctrine of the Trinity
Jerome’s translation undoubtedly influenced the theology of the Church, especially through the choice of specific terms that later played a role in theological debates. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the doctrine of the Trinity is not based solely on the Vulgate but also on earlier writings, church traditions, and ecumenical councils.
Exodus 3:14 and John 1:1: A detailed look
Both verses play a central role in Christian theology and thus have specific implications for the understanding of the Godhead.
John 1:1
Original Writing (Greek): Εν αρχη ην ο λογος, και ο λογος ην προς τον θεον, και θεος ην ο λογος
Common Translation: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.”
Critical Analysis: The Greek original formulation allows for interpretations. Particularly relevant are the articles (“ο”) and the word for God (“θεος”). Depending on the translation, the verse could also read: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with the God, and divine was the Word.” Interpreting these nuances can have significant implications for understanding the doctrine of the Trinity and the nature of Jesus Christ.
Exodus 3:14
Septuagint: The Septuagint translates the Hebrew self-designation of God as “Ego eimi ho ōn” (“I am the Being”).
Vulgate: Jerome translated this verse in the Vulgate as “Ego sum qui sum” (“I am who I am”).
Analysis: The different translations can influence the understanding of the Godhead. While “I am the Being” is more of a statement about the existential nature of God, “I am who I am” suggests a self-referential, unchanging quality.
Summary
Jerome’s Vulgate is not just a translation but also an interpretation that had significant influence in the Western Church tradition. This becomes particularly evident when considering the subtle nuances of the translations, which allow significant room for different theological interpretations. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to carefully analyze the original text and its possible interpretations, especially in the context of the doctrine of the Trinity.